Antique Bronze Gold Vase

Antique Bronze Gold Vase

Introduction to Ancient Egypt

Introduction

In this brief essay, we describe the main characteristics of ancient Egyptian history. Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Civilization formed around 3150 BC with the political unification Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh and it developed over the next three millennia. Its history occurred in series of stable kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods. Ancient Egypt reached its peak during the New Kingdom, after which he entered a period of slow decline. Egypt was conquered by a succession of foreign powers in this period end and the rule of the pharaohs officially ended in 31 BC when the early Roman Empire conquered Egypt and made it a province. We will follow the history from the earliest times to the period of roms here.

The success of the ancient Egyptian civilization arose in part its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile Valley. Floods predictable and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced Crop surpluses, which fueled social development and culture. With alternative resources, the administration sponsored operation mining in the valley and surrounding desert regions, the rapid development of an independent writing system, the organization the collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and an army destined to defeat the foreign enemies and to affirm the Egyptian domination.

Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, chiefs religious, and administrators under the control of a pharaoh who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people as part of a system complex of religious beliefs. The many accomplishments of the ancient Egyptians include mining, surveying and construction techniques that facilitated construction of monumental pyramids, temples, obelisks, a system of mathematics, a practical and effective system of medicine, systems irrigation and agricultural production techniques, the first known ships, Egyptian faience and glass technology, new forms of literature, and the oldest known peace treaty. Egypt has left a lasting legacy. His art and architecture have been widely copied, and antiques carried to the four corners of the world as collections of many museums around the world testify. Its monumental ruins have inspired the imagination of travelers and writers centuries.

Egypt also provides the backdrop for many biblical events. Examples: Egypt is mentioned among the world leaders of 70 countries in the table of nations in Genesis 10, Misrayim has been registered with the son of Ham who settled in Africa. Egyptian agricultural practices are also mentioned, at a relatively early stage of the Bible, Deuteronomy 11:10, for example: "The land that you enter to take load is not like the land of Egypt, from where you come from, where you planted your seed and irrigated up like a vegetable garden. "The Bible also says that the Israelites lived in "Goshen" (Genesis 45:10, etc.) and "the district of Rameses" (Genesis 47:11, etc.) during the stay. archaeological remains of a Semitic presence in the eastern delta, when the Bible says that the Israelites lived in Egypt, indicates that is the site of Rameses and Goshen As we see from the sketch of ancient Egyptian history below for 3000 years, Egypt was a kingdom of 30 dynasties of pharaohs. Many biblical events have been deeply affected by Egypt, but only four pharaohs identified in the Bible: Sisak (22nd Dynasty, 1 Kings 14:25-26), Taharqa (Kushite, 25th Dynasty, 2 Kgs 7:09 p.m., Is 37:9), Necho (II, 26th Dynasty, 2 Kgs 11:29 p.m.) and Hophra / Apries (26th dynasty, Jer 44:30).

biblical events in Egypt are almost exclusively in Lower Egypt, where the Israelites settled in Goshen. Abraham, Joseph, Jacob and Moses all lived in the eastern delta. Jeremiah, and even the Holy Family, would also visited the delta region. It can be dount ancient Egypt had a profound influence on our culture and a newfound respect for antiquities and excavations early modern period and especially after the Napoleonic invasion led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural heritage, to Egypt and the world.

The major phases of ancient history Egypt

We can divide the history of ancient Egypt in 11 main phases - see paragraphs 1-11 below:

By the end of the Paleolithic, the arid climate of North Africa became increasingly hot and dry, forcing the people of the region to focus along the Nile valley, and since modern nomadic human hunter-gatherers began living in the area until the late Pleistocene average about 120,000 years, the Nile was the lifeline of Egypt. The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the ability to develop a settled agricultural economy and more sophisticated, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of civilization human.

1) Predynastic c.6000-3200 BC

In the early predynastic and dynastic the Egyptian climate was much less arid than today. Vast areas of Egypt were covered with savannah and crossing by herds of grazing ungulates. Foliage and wildlife are much more prolific in every neighborhood and in the Nile region supported important waterfowl populations. The hunting was common to the Egyptians and is also the period during which many animals would have first been domesticated. By about 5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile Valley has developed into a series of cultures demonstrating firm control of Agriculture and animal husbandry, and easily identifiable by their pottery and personal items such as combs, bracelets and beads. The largest these crops in early Upper Egypt, the Badari, was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools, and its use of copper. In northern Egypt, the Badari was followed by crops and Amratian Gerzian which showed a number of technical improvements. In Gerzian time, evidence are starting to have contact with the land of Canaan and the coast of Byblos. In southern Egypt, the Naqada culture, similar to the Badari, began to develop along the Nile about 4000 BC. From the Naqada I period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes.

During a period of about 1000 years, the Naqada culture developed from a some small farming communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in total control of the population and resources of the Nile Valley. Creating a power center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile. They also traded with Nubia in the south western desert oases of western and eastern cultures of the Mediterranean to the east. The Naqada culture manufactured a diverse range of material goods, reflecting the growing power and wealth of the elite, which includes pottery painted, high quality decorative stone vases, cosmetic palettes, and jewelry made of gold, lapis, and ivory. They have also developed a ceramic glaze known asfaience that was used in Roman times and to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last Phase predynastic Naqada culture began using written symbols that would eventually turn into a complete system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language.

2) Early Dynastic Period

The third century BC Egyptian priest Manetho divided the long line of pharaohs in his time of Menes in 30 dynasties, a system still in use today. He chose to start its history with the official king named "Meni" (or Menes in Greek), which was then believed to have united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt (about 3200BC). The transition to a unified state actually happened more gradually than the ancient Egyptian writers would have us believe, and there no contemporary record of Menes. Some researchers now believe, however, that the mythical Menes may have actually been the pharaoh Narmer, who is depicted wearing royal regalia on the ceremonial Narmer Palette in a symbolic act of unification. In the first period dynastic About 3150 BC, the first dynasty of pharaohs solidified their control over Lower Egypt in establishing a capital at Memphis, from which they could control the labor force and agriculture of the fertile delta region and the lucrative trade routes and critical of the Levant. The increased power and wealth the pharaohs during the first dynastic period was reflected in their graves mastaba develop and cult structures at Abydos tomb, which were used to celebrate the deified pharaoh after his death. The strong institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs served to legitimize the control state on the land, labor and resources that are indispensable to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.

3) Old Kingdom c.2560 BC - c.2134 BC

Stunning advances in architecture, art and technology have been made during the Old Kingdom, fueled by increased agricultural productivity made possible by a central well developed. Under the direction of the vizier, state officials collect taxes, the coordination of irrigation projects to improve performance crops, farmers prepared to work on construction projects, and established a system of justice to maintain peace and order. With surplus resources made available by a productive economy and stable government has been able to sponsor the construction of the gigantic work of the Commission Monuments and outstanding art in the royal workshops. The pyramids built by Djoser, Khufu, and their descendants are the most memorable symbols of the former Egyptian civilization, and the power of the pharaohs that controlled it. With the growing importance of a central administration arose a new class of educated scribes and officials who have been granted by Pharaoh areas as payment for their services. Pharaohs also made land grants to their cults and funerary temples premises to ensure that these institutions have the necessary resources to worship the pharaoh after his death. At the end of the Old Empire, five centuries of these feudal practices had slowly eroded the economic power of the pharaoh, who could no longer afford to support a large government centralized. As the power of the pharaoh diminished, regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the pharaoh. This, coupled to severe droughts between 2200 and 2150 BC, eventually led the country into a period of 140 years of famine and war known as the First Intermediate Period.

4) First Intermediate Period

After the central government of Egypt collapsed at the end of the Old Empire, the administration could no longer support or stabilize the economy. Governors region could not rely on the king for help in times of crisis and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small-scale civil wars. Yet, in spite of difficult problems, local leaders, owing no tribute to the pharaoh, used their newly gained independence to establish a flourishing culture in the provinces. Once in control of their own resources, the provinces became economically richer - a fact demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes. In bursts of creativity, provincial artisans adopted and adapted cultural motifs formerly restricted to the royalty of the Old Kingdom, and scribes developed literary styles that expressed optimism and originality of the period. Free from their loyalties to the pharaoh, local leaders have begun to compete with each other for control of territory and political power. In 2160 BC, the leaders Herakleopolis control Lower Egypt, while a clan rival based in Thebes, Intef family, took control of Upper Egypt. As Intefs grew in power and extended their control to the north, a confrontation between the two rival dynasties became inevitable. Around 2055 BC the Theban forces under Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II finally defeated the leaders Herakleopolitan, uniting the Two Lands and inaugurating a period of economic and cultural revival known as the Middle Kingdom.

5) Middle Kingdom c.2040 BC - c.1783 BC

The Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom restored the country's prosperity and stability, thereby stimulating a resurgence of art, literature and monumental building projects. Mentuhotep II and his 11 successors dynasty ruled from Thebes, but the vizier Amenemhet I, upon assuming kingship at the beginning of the 12th Dynasty, around 1985 BC, shifted the capital to the city of Itjtawy located in Fayoum. From Itjtawy, the pharaohs of the 12th Dynasty undertook a restoration of long-term land and irrigation to increase agricultural production in the region. In addition, the territory reconquered military Nubia rich in quarries and gold mines, while laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta, called the "Walls-of-the-sovereign" to defend against foreign attack. Having obtained the military and political security and vast mineral wealth and agricultural, the country's population, arts and religion flourished. Unlike the old elitist attitudes towards the United gods, the Middle Kingdom has experienced an increase in expressions of piety personal and what one might call the democratization of the afterlife, in which everyone has a soul and could be upheld society of the gods after their death. Middle Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a certain style eloquent and the relief and portrait sculpture of the period of making subtle, individual details that reaches new heights of technical perfection. The last great ruler of the Middle Empire, Amenemhat III, allowed settlers in the Asian Delta Region to provide enough manpower for its operations particularly active mining and building campaigns. These ambitious building and mining, however, combined with insufficient Niles later in his reign, strained the economy and precipitated the slow decline of the Second Intermediate Period during the last 13th and 14th dynasties. During this decline, Asian foreign settlers began to take control of the delta region, eventually coming to power in Egypt, the Hyksos.

6) Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos

Around 1650 BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom pharaohs weakened, immigrants Asian living in the eastern city of Avaris Delta has taken control of the region and forced the central government to retreat to Thebes, where the Pharaoh was considered a vassal and expected to pay tribute.The Hyksos ("foreign rulers") imitated Egyptian models Government and presented themselves as pharaohs, thus integrating elements of Egyptian culture in the Middle Bronze Age. After retirement, the Kings of Thebes were found trapped between the Hyksos to the north and the Hyksos' Nubian allies, the Kushites, to the south. Nearly 100 years of tenuous inaction followed, and it was not until 1555 BC that the Theban forces gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that was last more than 30 years. The pharaohs Tao II and Seqenenre Kamose were finally able to defeat the Nubians, but it was the successor of Kamose, Ahmose I, has successfully conducted a series of campaigns that permanently eradicated the Hyksos' presence in Egypt. In the New Kingdom that followed, the military has become a central priority for the pharaohs seeking to expand the borders of Egypt and ensure its complete domination of the Middle East.

7) New Empire C. 1540 BC - c.1070 BC

The New Kingdom pharaohs established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic relations with their neighbors. The military campaigns under Tuthmosis I and his grand-son Tuthmosis III extended the influence pharaohs into Syria and Nubia, cementing loyalties and opening access to critical imports such as bronze and wood. The pharaohs of the New Kingdom have launched a major campaign to promote the god Amun, whose cult was increasingly based at Karnak. They also constructed monuments to their own achievements, both real and imaginary. The female pharaoh Hatshepsut used such propaganda to legitimize its claim to the throne. His reign success was marked by commercial shipments to the country, an elegant mortuary temple, a colossal pair of obelisks and a chapel at Karnak. Despite her achievements, Hatshepsut's nephew-son-Tuthmosis III sought to erase his legacy at the end of his reign, perhaps in retaliation for having usurped the throne. Around 1350 BC, the stability of the New Kingdom, was threatened when Amenhotep IV ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical reforms and chaotic. Changing his name to Akhenaten, he touted previously obscure god Aten sun as the supreme deity, abolished the worship of other deities, and attacked the power of the priestly establishment. move the capital to the new town of Akhetaten (Now Amarna), Akhenaten turned a deaf ear to the Foreign Affairs and himself absorbed by his new religion and artistic style. After his death, the cult of Aten was quickly abandoned, and later pharaohs Tutankhamun, Ay, Horemheb and erased all mention of Akhenaten's heresy, now known as the Amarna period. Around 1279 BC, Ramses II, also known as Ramses the Great, ascended the throne, and continued to build more temples, statues and obelisks to install more, and father of several children of any pharaoh in history. A leader in bold military Ramses He led his army against the Hittites at the Battle of Kadesh and, after fighting to a stalemate, finally accepted the Treaty of Peace entered the first round 1258 Ave. riches of Egypt, however, makes a tempting target for invasion, particularly by the Libyans and the Peoples of the Sea Initially, the army managed to repel these invasions, but Egypt eventually lost control of Syria and Palestine. The impact of external threats has been exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption, theft and grave civil unrest. The high priests of the temple of Amun at Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and their growing power split the country during the Third Intermediate Period.

Third Period Intermediate

After the death of Ramses XI in 1078 BC, Smendes took authority over the northern part of Egypt, the decision of the city Tanis. The south is effectively controlled by the high priests of Amun at Thebes, who recognized the name Smendes. Meanwhile, the Libyans had been settle in the western delta, and the heads of these settlers have begun to increase their autonomy. Libyan princes took control of the delta under Shishak I in 945 BC, the founding of the dynasty which called Libyan or Bubastites rule for some 200 years. Shishak also took control of southern Egypt by placing members of his family in important priestly positions. control of Libya began to erode as a rival dynasty in the delta has been raised in Leontopolis and threatened Kushites south. Around 727 BC, the Kushite king Piye invaded the north, seizing control of Thebes and eventually the Delta. high prestige scale of Egypt has significantly decreased towards the end of the Third Intermediate Period. Foreign allies had fallen under the Assyrian sphere of influence, and the war in 700 BC between the two states has become inevitable. Between 671 and 667 BC, the Assyrians began their attack against Egypt. The reign of two kings Taharqa Kushite and his successor, Tanutamun, were filled with constant conflict with the Assyrians, cons which leaders of Nubia had several victories. Ultimately, the Assyrians pushed back Kushites in Nubia, occupied Memphis, and sacked the temples of Thebes.

9) Late Period

In the absence of plans for permanent conquest, the Assyrians left control of Egypt in a series vassals who became known as the kings of the Saite dynasty twenty-sixth. By 653 BC, the Saite king Psammetichus I was able to hunt Assyrians with the help of Greek mercenaries, who were recruited to form the first Marine to Egypt. Greek influence expanded greatly Naucratis the city became home of the Greeks in the delta. The Saite kings based in the new capital of Sais had a brief but lively resurgence economy and culture, but in 525 BC, the Persians powerful, led by Cambyses II, began their conquest of Egypt, subsequently captured Pharaoh Psammetichus III at the Battle of Pelusium. Cambyses II then took the formal title of Pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from his home in Susa, leaving Egypt under the control of a satrapy. A few successful revolts against the Persians marked the 5th century BC, but Egypt has never been finally able to overthrow the Persians. Following the annexation by Persia, Egypt has been joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia in the satrapy of the Achaemenid Persian Empire sixth. This first period of Persian rule over Egypt, also known as Dynasty Twenty-seventh, ended in 402 BC, and 380-343 BC the Thirtieth Dynasty ruled that the Royal House last native dynasty of Egypt, which took end with the royalty of Nectanebo II. A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as the dynasty of the Thirty-first session began in 343 BC but soon after, in 332 BC, the Persian ruler Mazaca handed over to Egypt by Alexander the Great without a fight [56].

10) Ptolemaic Dynasty 332 BC-30 BC In 332 BC

Alexander the Great conquered Egypt with little resistance against the Persians and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a liberator. The administration established by the successors of Alexander, the Ptolemies, was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new capital of Alexandria. The city was to showcase the power and prestige of Greek rule, and became a seat of learning and culture, centered on the famous library of Alexandria. The Lighthouse of Alexandria has lit the way for the holding of many commercial vessels flows through the city, as the Ptolemies made commerce and revenue-generating enterprises, such as the manufacture of papyrus, their main priority. the Greek culture does not replace the native culture of Egypt, the Ptolemies supported long-standing traditions in an effort to ensure the loyalty of the population. They built new temples in the Egyptian style, with the support of traditional religions, and describes herself as pharaohs. Some traditions have merged, as Greek gods and Egyptian deities were merged into composites as Serapis, and classic Greek sculpture forms influenced traditional Egyptian motifs. Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by the indigenous rebellion, the bitter rivalries of the family, and Alexandria powerful crowd that had formed after the death of Ptolemy IV. In addition, as Rome relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt, the Romans took a great interest in the political situation in the country. Following revolts Egyptian politicians ambitious and powerful opponents of the Syrian situation is unstable, leading to Rome to send troops to secure the country as a province of his empire.

11) Roman

Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC, after the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra Ptolemaic Queen VII by Octavian (later Emperor Augustus) at the Battle of Actium. The Romans relied heavily on shipments of grain from Egypt and the Roman army, under the supervision of a prefect appointed by the Emperor, put down rebellions, strictly Applied perception of heavy taxes, and has prevented attacks by bandits, who had become a notorious problem during the period. Alexandria became a center increasingly important trade route with the East as an exotic luxury were in high demand in Rome. Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude the Greeks to the Egyptians, some traditions such as mummification and the worship of traditional gods continued. The mummy portraiture flourished, and some of the Roman emperors had themselves depicted as Pharaohs, but not to the extent that the Ptolemies had. The first has lived outside of Egypt and does not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian royalty.

Local government became Roman in style and closed the Egyptians origin. Since the middle of the first century AD, Christianity took root in Alexandria, he was considered a cult that could be accepted. However, he was adamant that religion seeks to win converts from paganism and threatened the religious folk. This led to the persecution of converts to Christianity, culminating in the great purges of Diocletian in 303 AD of departure, but eventually Christianity has prevailed. In 391 AD the Christian EmperorTheodosius introduced a law that prohibits pagan rituals and temples shut. Alexandria became the scene of riots Anti-great pagan religious imagery with public and private destroyed. Accordingly, the pagan culture of Egypt has been continuously down. While the Aboriginal population has continued to speak their language, the ability to read hieroglyphic writing slowly disappeared as the role of priests and priestesses of Egyptian temple fell. The temples are sometimes converted to churches or abandoned in the desert.

For history summaries and guidelines please see other articles by Dr. Simon Harding www.biblon.com www.chronosconsulting.com

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